Livestock Species

In the case of livestock species, the main priority is to elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which nutrients affect food quality.

From: Lipids and Edible Oils , 2020

Rangeland Management

A. Sandhage-Hofmann , in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2016

Domestic livestock

Although rangelands are increasingly being used in new ways, such as for tourism, agropastoralism, conservation, mining, and energy production, livestock production and grazing remains the main land-use system for rangelands (Reid et al., 2014). There are several, mostly linked, strategies for sustainable rangeland management for livestock, where the overall goal is to maintain rangelands in good condition, sustaining their basic biophysical and socio-economic functions and services (Friedel et al., 2000; Whitehead et al., 2000; Pyke et al., 2002). The management of livestock and their grazing behavior is an important topic with respect to the worldwide problem of rangeland degradation, which is assumed to be caused partly by livestock overgrazing (Chillo et al., 2015 ). A number of variables have to be considered for the adaption of domestic livestock to a given rangeland. The rangeland manager must decide about livestock species and the composition of classes in herd, as well as stocking rate and stocking strategy.

Approximately 12 species of domesticated animals dominate global livestock production ( Table 2 ) (Blench, 2000). The most important of these are cattle, sheep, and goats, with global populations of approximately 1.4 billion, 1.09 billion, and 0.8 billion, respectively (these data include also indoor housing, but this only represents a small portion for Europe) (FAOSTAT, 2016).

Table 2. Number of different livestock species worldwide and their main features

Species Number of animals worldwide water requirement (L"; day−   1) water requirement average (L day−   1) Thermal-comfort zone Vegetation Physiological adaption Topography adaption
Cattle 1.4 bio 5–25°C a Tall, coarse grass Grazers Flat terrain
 Feedlot cattle: backgrounder cattle 15–40 25
 Lactating cows wiht calves 40–80 55
Sheep 1.1 bio 4–5 0–30°C Shrubs, forbs, grass Intermediate feeders Rough, steep terrain
 Feeder lamb 3.6–5.2 4.40
 Gestating meat ewe 4.0–6.5 5.25
 Lactating dairy ewe 9.4–11.4 10.4
Goat 0.8 bio 4–5 0–30°C Shrubs, bushes Browsers Rough, steep terrain
 Milking 3.7
 Dry cows, bred heifers and bulls 2.6
Horses 56.4 mio 5–25°C b Coarse grass Grazers
 Small 13–20 16.5
 Large 39–59 49
Camels 22 mio 10–40°C c Browsers Flat terrain
Donkeys 44 mio. 20 23–32°C d Grazers and Browsers Rough, steep terrain
Mules 45 mio FAO/15 mio [*] 20 Grazers and Browsers
Yak 13,8 mio 10 8–14°C e Grass, coarse plants, sedges Grazers
a
Washington University Extension (2015).
b
Morgan (1998).
c
Samara and Alhaidary (2014).
d
Ake et al. (2013).
e
Wiener et al. (2003).

Adapted by FAOSTAT (2016).

Livestock species are differently adapted to different rangeland types and five key factors are involved in the selection of proper livestock species: climate, water requirement, vegetation, topography, and socio-economic conditions. These are discussed below.

(1)

Climatic conditions include air temperature, where different livestock species differ in withstanding climatic extremes. It is important to recognize that not only the plain air temperature, but also the themoneutrale zone (TNZ) of the animals, is an important factor for selection of species. TNZ is defined as the range of effective ambient temperatures (EAT) at which an animal does not have to actively regulate its body temperature. For healthy cattle, for example, a range between 0°C and 25°C is recommended, whereas sheep and goats are able to withstand higher and lower temperatures ( Fig. 2 ). Additionally, the adaptability of sheep and goats to climatic conditions is higher than for cattle. The TNZ is influenced by several factors, including breeds, body condition, type of hair coat and pigmentation of the hide and hair, wind speed, and humidity.

Fig. 2. The thermoneutrale zone of beef, sheep and goat.
(2)

Although water is essential for life, little is known about actual requirements for normal physiological functions within the TNZ or at thermal extremes (Subcommittee on Environmental Stress, 1981). The requirements of water are closely tied to animal condition, the moisture content of their feed ration, and environmental factors such as air temperature and relative humidity (Ward and McKague, 2007). Studies from the National Academy of Sciences (2000) could show that the water requirement of beef cattle rises as temperatures rise from 4.4°C to 32.2°C ( Fig. 3 ). Additionally, there are large differences in estimated water needs between species; sheep and goats only require approximately one-tenth as much water as cattle (Subcommittee on Environmental Stress, 1981) ( Table 2 ).

Fig. 3. Daily water intake of animals under different temperature regimes (according to National Academy of Sciences, 2000).
(3)

Different livestock species have different foraging preferences and are suited to different ecological niches. Therefore, herd diversity is an important adaptation strategy of traditional and commercial systems (IUCN, 2010). Herbivores are classified into three major groups. Firstly, grazers, including cattle, horses and mules, primarily consume grass and have the digestive capabilities to handle large quantities of forages that are relatively low in quality. Cattle are better adapted to grazing than browsing, and have a limited ability to select among plants and plant parts. The second group is intermediate feeders, which includes sheep. These animals are able to graze selectively and take specific parts of a plant like small leaves or buds. Sheep tend to consume more forbs than grass. Thirdly, browsers, such as goats, are able to chew branches and strip individual leaves from woody stems, which results in them having higher-quality diets than cattle (Launchbaugh and Walker, 2006). Under extreme situations like forage shortage, most livestock animals are adaptable to different plant species.

(4)

Goats and sheep are versatile animals and can live in diverse environments (Dwyer, 2008). This includes grazing and/or browsing in varied, steep, and rocky terrain. In contrast, cattle are not well adapted to rocky and steep grounds and prefer flat areas. According to the topography of the rangeland, animal selection can lead to an undistributed grazing pattern.

(5)

Socio-economic conditions can determine the selection of livestock species. This is especially true in traditional rangeland systems, where specific species are attributed to common wealth.

The selection of livestock species can impact plant composition, with cattle-only systems appearing to have a higher potential for bush encroachment than mixed cattle/small ruminant systems (Section " Bush encroachment "). Also, cattle graze more herbaceous biomass and can cause compaction, leading to different impacts on carbon stocks (see below). By contrast, goats tend to browse more from trees and shrubs, causing loss of woody biomass (Woomer et al., 2004). A promising tool for balancing the impacts on rangeland caused by one livestock is applying multi-species grazing systems (Burrit and Frost, 2006). More even utilization of the forage supply can prevent degradation of single plant species (Launchbaugh and Walker, 2006). Nowadays, livestock grazing can also be seen as a powerful tool to change the botanical composition of rangeland and control weeds and invasive plants; this is called targeted grazing. Here, knowledge of how specific livestock species influence plant communities can serve as a skill for vegetation management on rangelands (Launchbaugh and Walker, 2006).

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Semen quality biomarkers for improvement of production in livestock

Rashi Vasisth , ... Ranjit Singh Kataria , in Advances in Animal Experimentation and Modeling, 2022

7.1 Introduction

Livestock species have been an integral part of human welfare and development, since their domestication, having ecological and food production implications. Millions of people, particularly in the rural households of countries like India, rely on livestock production to ensure food supply, livelihood security, assets saving, and sustainable agricultural production. However, the consumption demand of rapidly growing population is increasing at a higher pace than growth in livestock production. With the human population competing for land usage to produce cereals and other crops for their consumption, rather than fodder for livestock, high producing animals will be required to meet the animal food demands. This huge gap can be fulfilled by successful breeding and genetic enhancement of economically important traits like milk production, fat and protein production, fertility, body conformation, etc.

Genetic improvement of livestock has and continues to play a crucial role in the advancement of livestock agriculture by increasing the efficiency and sustainability of production for all livestock species. Since long time, after their domestication, through selective mating, animals with better production traits are being selected. Among various techniques available, artificial insemination (AI) as part of the modern breeding programs has proved to be a potential tool for the faster multiplication and genetic improvement. The genetic merits of the sires used in AI centers and quality of the semen produced play a very crucial role in the success of genetic improvement program. However, the quality of the frozen semen being produced and the conception rates limit the desired success of AI. Multifactorial dependence of semen quality such as scrotal circumference, age and breed, management-related factors and environmental variations such as season of semen collection makes it challenging to effectively screen ejaculates prior to processing. Classical evaluation parameters do not showcase the complete picture of semen quality due to its subjective nature. It is important to understand the changes in the semen composition, molecular mechanism at cellular level in spermatozoa associated with that in the composition variation of seminal plasma and utilization of these constituents by the sperm cell which could influence the sperm functions. The modern molecular detection tools might aid in generation of complete semen quality profile. These Molecular biomarkers can be used in detection of cryptic abnormalities in spermatozoa.

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Poultry genetics and breeding

Giridhar Athrey , in Animal Agriculture, 2020

Health and welfare challenges

Livestock species pose a threat to human health indirectly as sources of zoonotic diseases. Poultry is among the significant sources of human disease given the intensity and frequency of contact between humans and birds. Recurrent pandemics such as avian influenza (e.g., recent H5N1 outbreaks since 1997) arise through poultry farms. These outbreaks are also devastating to poultry production: in 2015, avian influenza outbreak resulted in the mass euthanasia of approximately 35 million laying hens and approximately six million pullets in the United States (Egg Industry Center, 2015). Dobrowolska and Brown 55 showed that the 2015 outbreak could have caused a spike in egg prices due to a 11% decline in supply. Breeding for resistance to avian influenza, or genetic engineering to develop resistant strains is one of the most critical and necessary priorities to sustain and protect poultry production and generate genetic stocks to supply poultry products to meet demands of humanity in the future. In 2019, researchers at the Roslin Institute in Scotland announced the creation of a gene edited chicken strain resistant to contracting avian influenza from wild birds. The demonstration of the feasibility and safety of such technologies at large scale is necessary before they become a clearly viable option in poultry breeding.

Poultry welfare is another area that has undergone dramatic change in the last two decades. Poultry welfare is a legislative concern in the European Union, but is an emerging challenge on a global scale. Some estimates put egg production from industrial systems at greater than 60%, with 90% of hens today housed in cages. 56 However, this percentage is lower in the EU (57%). In cage-free systems, however, fear, aggression and other unfavorable behaviors exact a toll on productivity. In Europe, beak trimming is used to mitigate pecking and mortality, which adds to the costs, whereas in the US and Brazil costs are lower due to the absence of regulations on beak trimming. On a global front, it might be prudent for primary breeders to create breeds selected for cage-free environments, wherein pecking and flightiness are mitigated. Alternatively, future solutions may include gene edited strains of poultry for which requirements for beak trimming are reduced or eliminated without compromising feeding and other natural behaviors. Carlson et al. 57 used gene editing to produce hornless cattle to eliminate the need for mechanical de-horning (polling). This method solves an animal welfare issue without affecting either performance or health of the animal, and potentially suggests a way to incorporate welfare traits into poultry of the future.

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Integrated Weed Management in Organic Farming

Charles N. Merfield , in Organic Farming, 2019

5.7.2 Livestock Species

Different livestock species, e.g., cattle, sheep, deer, goats, and horses have different grazing habits, e.g., cattle prefer longer pasture they can rip off and sheep shorter pasture they can nibble. They also have different plant species preferences, for example, horses avoid Rumex spp., while deer and goats readily graze them (Scott, 1989; Hejcman et al., 2014). Therefore, where practical, alternating the grazing species can further help reduce weeds.

Goats have a preference for woody weeds over typical sown pasture species (Clark et al., 1982), so can be used for management of woody weeds in less intensively managed pastures and other areas.

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Dietary exposure of livestock and humans to hepatotoxic natural products

S.M. Colegate , ... J.A. Edgar , in Animal Feed Contamination, 2012

Susceptibility of livestock to poisoning

Different livestock species have vastly different susceptibilities to poisoning by DHPAs. The susceptibility is influenced by species-specific metabolism (including the ability of the liver to synthesize the 'pyrrole' metabolites, and the rate of proliferation, growth and metabolism of hepatocytes), age, sex, and other temporary factors such as biochemical, physiologic and nutritional status.

Young animals are generally more susceptible to DHPAs than aged adults. Neonatal and nursing animals have been reported to develop fatal hepatic disease while the lactating dams were unaffected (Small et al., 1993). From a nutritional status perspective, animals that have marginal nutrition are more likely to develop disease. In addition, sheep are particularly prone to a synergistic effect of dietary DHPAs and copper leading to excess storage of copper and a fatal haemolytic crisis (Howell et al., 1991).

From a species perspective, some reported toxicity indices are pigs 1, chickens 5, cattle and horses 14, rats 50, mice 150, and sheep and goats 200 (Hooper, 1978). In another study, the toxic dose of Senecio sp. was 20 times higher for sheep and goats than the dose that killed cattle (Dollahite, 1972). Due to the relative resistance to DHPA intoxication by sheep and goats, they can be used with care, since there can be toxic sequelae (Harris, 1998), as biocontrol agents to graze pastures that could poison horses and cattle (Dollahite, 1972; Sharrow and Mosher, 1982).

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Reproductive and Maternal Behavior of Livestock

Peter J. Chenoweth , ... Cornelia Flöercke , in Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals (Second Edition), 2014

Conclusions

Although each livestock species has developed a distinct repertoire of courtship, copulatory, and maternal behaviors, significant differences occur within species and between individuals in the expression of all of these traits. This permits selection for positive reproductive and maternal behaviors, both of which are linked with livestock productivity and profitability. Despite this, indiscriminate artificial selection for maximum productivity has been linked with adverse reproductive and maternal outcomes. It is considered that informed selection and management based on good behavioral principles should lead to greater reproductive "success" and improved animal welfare within the context of profitable production.

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Mitochondrial DNA: a tool for elucidating molecular phylogenetics and population

Monika Sodhi , ... Manishi Mukesh , in Advances in Animal Experimentation and Modeling, 2022

Abstract

The domesticated livestock species have evolved through the process of natural as well as manmade selection. The natural selection led to adaptation to the specific environment and reproduce whereas man made selection aimed for best production so as to meet the human needs. The first food animals to be domesticated were ruminants (cattle, sheep, and goats) followed by pigs possibly to dispose of the waste. The major purpose for domestication of horse was transportation and draft work purposes. The archeological data suggest that amongst the different livestock species, the first one to be domesticated in Southwest Asia was sheep ( Ovis aries) followed by goat (Capra hircus), hump lesstaurine cattle (Bostaurus), and pigs (Susscrofa). These domestication events are expected to have happened 10–15 thousand years ago (kya) in the Fertile Crescent region whereas humped zebu cattle (Bosindicus) were domesticated during the early Neolithic period around two millennia later somewhere in present-day Baluchistan (Pakistan). Similar to Indicus cattle the domestication of pigs in East Asia occurred about 8000 years ago (kya) from the wild boars which were genetically distinct from that of Southwest Asia. Next in the line was horse (Equuscaballus) and chicken (Gallus gallus) domesticated respectively on the Central Asian steppes ~5.5   kya and in Southeast Asia ~3.5   kya.

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Genomic selection

D.N. Das , ... Shanmugapriya Gnanasekaran , in Advances in Animal Genomics, 2021

10.26 Factors influencing genomic selection

Irrespective of any livestock species, genetic progress depends on for parameters viz., genetic variability (A), selection intensity (i), the accuracy of evaluation (r), and generation interval (L). There is a scope to bring any change in all factors except genetic variability as the genome of a particular animal has received the genetic architectural or hereditary material from its parents. The advantage of genomic selection is that the animals can be evaluated and selected at an early age just after birth and even at an embryonic stage even without prior knowledge of its own or of progeny for any targeted trait(s). If the cost of genomic selection is lower in a large number of breeds/species and production systems, there is a possibility of a reduction in generation interval, and selection intensity will increase in reference population especially for a trait which is difficult to measure like sex-limited, meat quality, and disease tolerance.

The third determinant, i.e., the accuracy of selection (r), is dependent on (i) accuracy of SNP effect and (ii) linkage disequilibrium (LD) between SNP and causal variants. Accuracy of the SNP effect depends on the reference population size (N) and heritability (h2) of the desired trait. The second factor, i.e., linkage disequilibrium, is influenced by the structure of the genome and genetic architecture of the trait. The number of independent segments plays a critical role in deciding accuracy of selection.

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Effect of Diet and Physical Activity of Farm Animals on their Health and Reproductive Performance

Anna Wilkanowska MSc , Dariusz Kokoszyński PhD , in Handbook of Fertility, 2015

Sheep

Unlike most domestic livestock species, sheep are widely known as animals with marked reproductive seasonality. However, similarly to other farm animals, reproductive traits in sheep are the most important features affecting profitability [36]. These characteristics are of a categorical nature, but in practice the continuous distribution of traits is analyzed [37]. Measures of reproduction commonly used in sheep include estrus rate (ewes estrus/ewes mated × 100), lambing rate (ewes lambed/ewes mated × 100), infertility rate (infertile ewes/ewes exposed × 100), fecundity (lambs born/ewes mated), litter size (lambs born/number of lambing ewes), single lambing (single-born lambs/lambs born × 100), twin lambing (twins born/lambs born × 100), and survival rate (weaning lambs/lambs born × 100) [38]. These characteristics are the most important factors in determining sheep productivity and the economic efficiency of a lamb production enterprise. Estimates of heritability for these reproductive traits in the literature range from 0.01 to 0.42 [39–41].

Moreover, the reproductive potentials of sheep are determined to a large extent by ram fertility. The reproductive capacity of rams, as in the case of ewes, is influenced by seasonal factors such as temperature, relative humidity, and the number of sunny hours [42]. However, in contrast to females, which become anovulatory outside the breeding season, rams are not azoospermic during the nonbreeding season despite a significant reduction in sperm production [43,44]. Also, physiological and behavioral variations in rams are less pronounced than in ewes [45].

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Behavior as it Relates to Handling

Bonnie V. Beaver , Donald L. Höglund , in Efficient Livestock Handling, 2016

Daily Time Budget

Time budgets for livestock species vary somewhat depending on the age of the animal, availability of food and water, season of the year, and the type of housing, but generalizations can be made ( Figure 2.12). 88 Complicating the comparison of time budgets between species is the variability of study methodology. Some studies report activities over a 24   h period while others report data gathered only during daylight hours.

Figure 2.12. The average daily time budgets for livestock species.

Time budgets for horses reflect that the animals spend most of the 24   h period eating or standing regardless of whether they are in stalls, pastures, or range land. 7,26,32,113,149 Of the time spent standing, however, part of it is spent in dozing or in light sleep. 88 In addition, the type of housing in which weanlings are raised will affect their longer term activity behaviors. 61 When compared to weanlings raised in box stalls, those raised in small groups in paddocks will show more time moving, similar to the time budgets of a feral horse. They also show a broader range of behaviors, a stronger motivation to graze, and a stronger desire to be near other horses. Box stall-raised weanlings spend significantly more time showing aberrant behaviors such as licking the stall, kicking the stall, pawing, and bucking. These abnormal behaviors in horses can also be affected by the design of the barn and whether the horse can view other horses or the outdoors. 20

Dairy cows will spend between 8 and 15   h a day lying down. 142,144 Beef cattle show some differences when on pasture because they spend over 50% of their time during the day grazing and about three-fourths of that amount ruminating. 42,70 The time spent grazing will also tend to peak around sunrise and sunset, with rumination peaking shortly after nightfall. 42 Grazing behaviors also are associated with an increased amount of time walking, because the animal needs to travel between water and food sources and sheltered areas.

Sheep and goats on pasture share similar time budgets. 106 These animals typically spend more time walking during daylight hours and become relatively inactive at night. 105

For pigs in pens, a large portion of the day is spent lying (about 80%) with barrows doing this slightly more often than gilts. Conversely, gilts spend about 2% more of their time standing. 40

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